Peacemaking From Above, Peace From Below: Ending Conflict Between Regional Rivals by Norrin M. Ripsman

Author:Norrin M. Ripsman [Ripsman, Norrin M.]
Language: eng
Format: epub
Tags: International Relations, History & Theory, General, Modern, 20th Century, Political Science, History, Security (National & International)
ISBN: 9781501704062
Google: 1wagDgAAQBAJ
Goodreads: 27810891
Publisher: Cornell University Press
Published: 2016-05-31T00:00:00+00:00

Russia-Turkey

The longstanding rivalry between Russia and Turkey lasted for several centuries, recessing at times and re-emerging at others.90 The essence of the rivalry, from the Russian perspective, was the Eastern Question, which related to the fate of the weakening and then collapsing Ottoman Empire, Russian access to the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles straits, and the fate of Slavs under Ottoman control in the Balkans, among other issues.91 The last installment of the rivalry unfolded in the late nineteenth century as the demise of the Ottoman Empire accelerated. During this time period, Russia, which hoped to gain both influence in the Balkans at Turkey’s expense and to secure access to the Mediterranean through the straits, fought the last of its thirteen wars with the Ottoman Empire.92 Notably, Russia defeated the Ottomans decisively in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 and imposed a large reparations indemnity on the Turks, which hampered the Ottoman economy and interfered with its development projects, especially construction of the Baghdad Railway.93 When World War I broke out, Istanbul sided with the Central Powers, primarily because it feared Russia would use the war to grab Turkish territory in Anatolia and because Germany promised territorial gains at Russia’s expense.94 The war proved devastating for both regimes, as Russia collapsed into revolution and the Turkish defeat in war formally marked the transformation of the once great Ottoman Empire into modern-day Turkey.

Following World War I, the two belligerents took two major steps toward ending their rivalry. To begin with, the new Bolshevik regime in Russia exited the war by concluding the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers on terms that were favorable to Turkey. In particular, Soviet Russia agreed to withdraw from Eastern Anatolia, which would be restored to Turkish control.95 Three years later, the two countries signed the 1921 Treaty of Moscow, a peace treaty ending their state of war and committing the two new regimes to friendly relations.96

Although neither Russia nor Turkey could be classified as a democracy during this period, public opinion does appear to have played some role in the Russian decision to end the conflict in that the 1917 Revolution was sparked by war weariness and a public rejection of the sacrifices and privations of war.97 Moreover, Turkish propaganda directed toward the Russian public and the new regime, labeling the war an imperialist endeavor, gained traction among Russian soldiers and the war-weary public at large.98 The Turkish public, especially after the harsh treatment they received from the Allied victors of World War I, were more favorable toward the new Soviet regime than they had been toward czarist Russia.99 In addition, an important factor that helped overcome Turkish hostility toward Russia was the 1918 return of Eastern Anatolia and its Turkish population, which alleviated the state-to-nation imbalance.100 Economic considerations mattered, but these pertained more to the Turkish need for arms and money from Russia to help establish the new Turkish regime and the Bolshevik leadership’s need to have commercial access to the straits, rather than any pressure from a business community.

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